Critical minerals (Part 6): Nickel – a mineral of beauty, industry and strategic value
Michael C Mackiewicz (USA)
Minerals have shaped human societies since ancient times, but the idea of ‘critical minerals’ is fairly recent. As explored in earlier articles in this series, the Top Ten critical minerals, lithium, cobalt, nickel, graphite, manganese, the rare‑earth elements, tungsten, vanadium, bismuth and antimony are central to advanced technologies, the global economy and national security. These minerals are essential for renewable energy, high‑tech manufacturing and strategic infrastructure, and they also play a major role in global politics and the economy. Yet their supply chains remain highly vulnerable to disruption.
Disruption to critical mineral supply chains in this context means problems that stop the flow of these minerals to where they are needed. It can happen because of wars, trade bans, natural disasters, or political decisions by countries that control most of the supply. For example, in 2010 China restricted exports of rare earth elements during a dispute with Japan, causing global prices to surge and manufacturers to scramble for alternatives. When supply chains are concentrated in a few regions, even one country’s action can shake the entire global economy.
Among the critical minerals, nickel stands out as a mineral with both scientific and cultural significance. It is essential to stainless steel, high‑temperature alloys, catalysts and modern battery chemistries, particularly those used in electric vehicles. Furthermore, nickel has a long history of use in pigments, ceramics and glass, where its compounds produced distinctive green and blue hues. Beyond its industrial roles, nickel also attracts mineral collectors: many nickel‑bearing minerals display striking colours, and unusual crystal forms or distinctive textures that make them sought after as specimens.
This combination of technological importance and mineralogical appeal makes nickel an ideal subject for a closer look. It sits at the intersection of geology, industry and society, linking deep‑Earth processes with global supply chains and the everyday technologies that depend on them. Understanding where nickel comes from, how it occurs in minerals, and is mined and processed, and how it can be recycled provides a clearer view of why it has become one of the most strategically significant elements of the twenty‑first century.
Geological settings of nickel deposits
Nickel does not occur freely in nature. Instead, it is bound within minerals formed in specific geological environments, each shaped by distinct physical and chemical processes. Although more than 50 nickel‑bearing minerals are known, the vast majority of the world’s nickel comes from two principal deposit types: magmatic sulphide deposits and nickel‑laterite deposits.
Magmatic sulphide deposits form when mafic or ultramafic magmas cool and begin to crystallise. Mafic and ultramafic rocks are both dark, dense igneous rocks rich in iron and magnesium. Ultramafic rocks contain < 45% silica and are made mostly of minerals like olivine and pyroxene. Mafic rocks have slightly more silica (45-55%) and include more plagioclase feldspar. In simple terms, ultramafic rocks are the most extreme form of mafic rocks and closely reflect the composition of Earth’s mantle.
Pentlandite, the key nickel‑sulphide mineral, forms in these types of sulphide deposits, which are common in Canada, Russia and parts of Australia. Despite their size and high grade, these ores are structurally complex and often costly to mine.
Nickel‑laterite deposits, by contrast, form at the Earth’s surface. In tropical climates, intense chemical weathering breaks down ultramafic rocks, leaching out elements and concentrating nickel in the residual soil profile. Over time, this produces thick, iron‑rich lateritic horizons containing garnierite and other nickel‑bearing silicates. Indonesia, the Philippines, New Caledonia and Papua New Guinea host some of the world’s most significant laterite deposits. Although laterites are abundant, they are technically challenging to process, often requiring energy‑intensive, hydrometallurgical methods, such as high‑pressure acid leaching.
A smaller number of nickel occurrences are found in hydrothermal, sediment‑hosted and metamorphic settings, where nickel is mobilised by fluids or incorporated into secondary minerals. These environments contribute only modestly to global supply, but are important for understanding the full mineralogical diversity of nickel.
Fig. 1 illustrates the global distribution of these geological settings, highlighting the regions where nickel resources are concentrated. The map shows the clear dominance of magmatic sulphide deposits in Canada, Russia and parts of Australia, and the clustering of laterite deposits across the tropical Pacific and Southeast Asia. Hydrothermal and sediment‑hosted systems appear more sporadically, reflecting their more limited economic significance.
Together, these geological environments provide the foundation for understanding how nickel enters the mineralogical and industrial worlds. They also set the stage for examining the minerals themselves, their characteristics and their roles in both collecting and industry.
Nickel‑bearing minerals: appearance, composition and roles
Nickel occurs in a diverse suite of minerals, each reflecting the geological environment in which it formed. Although more than fifty nickel‑bearing minerals are known, only a small number are significant either to industry or to mineral collectors. Their value, whether economically or aesthetically, depends on its composition, crystal structure, colour, habit and abundance. Understanding these minerals provides a bridge between the geological processes that create nickel deposits and the industrial systems that rely on them.
Collector‑focused nickel minerals
Nickel minerals have long appealed to collectors for their colour, form and rarity. Several species stand out for their distinctive appearance and the quality of specimens found in classic localities. Delicate sprays, annabergite’s vivid green hues and niccolite’s metallic sheen make them sought‑after pieces in any mineral cabinet. The minerals below are especially prized for their aesthetic appeal.
Millerite (Fig. 2). is one of the most recognisable collector species. It forms delicate sprays of hair‑like acicular crystals, often radiating from a central point to create starburst or hedgehog‑like aggregates. The contrast between the pale metallic needles and their host rock makes well‑developed specimens particularly striking. Classic examples come from Kentucky (USA) and the Harz Mountains (Germany).
Annabergite (Fig. 3). provides a vivid splash of colour. This bright green nickel arsenate forms as an alteration product of primary nickel arsenides, often lining fractures or coating older minerals with a distinctive, almost painted surface. Well‑crystallized specimens are uncommon, and their combination of colour and rarity makes them highly sought after.
Nickeline (Fig. 4). is appreciated for its copper‑red metallic lustre and sharp crystal forms. Although it often occurs as massive or vein‑filling material, well‑defined crystals can be exceptionally eye‑catching. Its colour and sheen make it a favourite among collectors of arsenide minerals.
Garnierite (Fig. 5). This a green nickel‑rich silicate found in laterite deposits, occupies a rare position as both a collector mineral and an industrial ore. Its soft, waxy textures and banded shades of green make it visually appealing, while its variable nickel content gives it economic significance. Specimens from New Caledonia and Indonesia are especially well known.
These minerals illustrate the aesthetic side of nickel mineralogy, offering a tangible link between deep‑Earth processes and the mineral cabinets of collectors and museums.
Industrially important nickel minerals
Industry values minerals for their nickel content, abundance and extractability. Pentlandite is the most important nickel sulphide ore, forming in magmatic sulphide deposits and supplying much of the nickel used in stainless steel and battery precursors. Garnierite is the principal nickel‑bearing mineral in laterite deposits and is increasingly important for battery‑grade materials. Millerite, violarite, heazlewoodite and gaspeite also contribute to nickel supply, although their economic roles vary depending on grade, mineralogy and processing requirements.
| Mineral | Sought by | Description |
|---|---|---|
| Millerite | Collector | Delicate acicular crystals; visually striking. |
| Annabergite | Collector | Bright green alteration mineral; valued for colour and rarity. |
| Niccolite | Collector | Copper‑red metallic lustre; prized for crystal form. |
| Garnierite | Both | Green nickel‑rich silicate; important in laterites and admired for colour. |
| Pentlandite | Industry | Major nickel sulphide ore; essential for stainless steel and batteries. |
| Violarite | Industry | Secondary sulphide; important in weathered sulphide deposits. |
| Heazlewoodite | Industry | High nickel content; occurs in ultramafic rocks. |
| Gaspeite | Both | Nickel carbonate; attractive green colour and minor industrial relevance. |
Table 1 highlights the minerals most commonly encountered by collectors and those most important to industry. Some, such as garnierite and gaspeite, occupy both worlds, while others are valued almost exclusively for either their beauty or their ore potential.
| Nickel content | Primary uses | Geological occurrence | Industrial relevance |
|---|---|---|---|
| 20-35% | Stainless steel, batteries | Magmatic sulphide deposits | Very high |
| Up to 65% | Minor ore, collector interest | Hydrothermal veins | Medium |
| 1-10% (variable) | Laterite ore, battery precursors | Lateritic weathering zones | High |
| 30-40% | Secondary ore | Weathered sulphide zones | Medium |
| Up to 72% | Specialty alloys | Ultramafic rocks | Medium |
| ~38% | Minor ore, collector mineral | Carbonate veins | Low |
| ~44% | Minor ore; arsenic‑bearing | Hydrothermal veins | Low |
Table 2 shows how nickel containing minerals vary in composition, geological origin and industrial usefulness. High nickel content does not always translate into economic viability: mineralogy, ore texture and processing requirements often determine whether a mineral can be exploited profitably.
Nickel‑bearing minerals vary widely in their nickel content and in their use in industry. Fig. 6 highlights this diversity by comparing the approximate nickel content of several key minerals with their relative industrial importance. Minerals such as heazlewoodite and millerite contain the highest nickel percentages, yet they are not the dominant industrial ores because they occur in less abundance and in more restricted geological settings.
Pentlandite, by contrast, contains a more moderate nickel content but is the most important sulphide ore due to its abundance in magmatic deposits and its favourable processing characteristics. Garnierite, despite its lower nickel content, remains central to laterite mining, because of its widespread occurrence in weathered ultramafic terrains. Fig. 6 illustrates a key point: industrial significance is shaped as much by geological availability and processing suitability as by nickel content.
This mineralogical diversity reflects the range of geological environments in which nickel forms, and it shapes the pathways through which nickel moves from ore to product. The next section examines how these minerals are mined, processed and, increasingly, recycled.
From ore to product: mining, processing and recycling
The journey from nickel‑bearing mineral to finished product is shaped by geology, technology and economics. Although nickel occurs in a wide range of minerals, only a handful can be mined and processed profitably. The challenges begin at the deposit scale and continue through extraction, refining and, increasingly, recycling.
Mining for nickel is rarely straightforward, because nickel is strongly bonded to sulphur, iron, magnesium or arsenic – it seldom forms simple ores. In many deposits, nickel is recovered as a co‑product or by‑product of mining for copper or cobalt, particularly in large magmatic sulphide systems. These deposits can be deep, structurally complex or disseminated, requiring extensive underground development or large‑scale open‑pit operations.
Laterite deposits present a different set of challenges.
These deposits are formed when rocks in tropical and subtropical regions undergo intense weathering. During this process, called lateritisation, rainwater washes away silica and other easily dissolved materials from the original rocks, leaving behind iron and aluminium oxides. Nickel and some other metals become concentrated in the remaining material.
Nickel mainly ends up in two zones:
- Limonite zone: nickel attaches to iron oxides like goethite.
- Saprolite zone: nickel is found in minerals like garnierite, which are rich in magnesium and water.
These deposits are very important because they supply about 70% of the world’s nickel production and hold 80% of nickel resources on land. The nickel gets concentrated when it moves out of original minerals (like olivine and pyroxene) and settles into new minerals under conditions where oxygen and water are present.
Although lateritic deposits are abundant, they are mineralogically complex and often require energy‑intensive processing. High‑pressure acid leaching (HPAL) is one of the most widely used methods for extracting nickel from laterites, but it demands significant capital investment and careful management of waste streams. Other laterite processing routes, such as rotary kiln electric furnaces, are also used but can be costly and carbon‑intensive.
Despite these difficulties, global nickel production continues to expand. Fig. 7 highlights the countries most involved in mining, processing or both. Indonesia, the Philippines and New Caledonia dominate laterite production, while Canada, Russia and Australia remain major producers of magmatic sulphide ores. Emerging producers, such as Tanzania, Brazil and Papua New Guinea, may become increasingly important as new deposits are developed and processing technologies evolve.
As demand for nickel grows, particularly for battery materials, recycling has become an essential part of the supply landscape. Nickel is highly recyclable, and recovery from stainless steel scrap, catalysts and spent batteries is expanding. Europe, Japan and China lead these efforts, while the United States and India are developing new recycling initiatives. Advances in hydrometallurgical recycling, direct cathode recycling and nickel‑reduced battery chemistries may reduce future reliance on mined nickel. Table 3 below summarises how nickel appears in everyday products, who uses them and the current level of recycling effort.
| Product | Used by | Form of nickel | Recycling effort level |
|---|---|---|---|
| Stainless steel | Construction, manufacturing | Alloyed nickel | High recovery rate |
| Mobile phones | Consumers | Lithium‑ion battery | Moderate recovery rate |
| Laptops | Consumers | Lithium‑ion battery | Moderate recovery rate |
| Electric vehicle batteries | Automotive sector | Battery pack | Growing interest |
| Power tools | Consumers, trades | Rechargeable battery | Limited recovery |
| E-bikes | Consumers | Battery module | Emerging |
Recycling alone cannot meet rising demand, but it plays a crucial role in reducing waste, lowering environmental impacts and improving supply security. As technologies mature, the balance between mined and recycled nickel will continue to evolve, shaping the future of nickel supplies.
Mining, processing and recycling
The path from a nickel‑bearing mineral to a finished product is a function of geology, technology and economics. The grade of the ore, the minerals present, rock-type, and the type of deposit all influence how the material is mined. Processing methods then depend on the chemical form of nickel and the impurities associated with it. Together, these factors affect the cost and efficiency of production, as well as where mining and refining take place around the world.
Nickel comes mainly from two types of deposits: sulphides and laterites. Sulphide ores -common in Canada, Russia and Australia – are usually mined by open pit or underground mines. The material is crushed, ground and concentrated by flotation before being smelted and refined into high‑purity nickel or intermediate products. Laterite ores follow a different processing path, which form through intense weathering and their mineralogy is more complex and requires energy‑intensive processing. Limonite‑rich laterites are treated using high‑pressure acid leaching (HPAL) to extract nickel and cobalt, while saprolite ores are smelted to produce ferronickel or nickel matte. These contrasting routes reflect the varied mineralogy of laterites and the need for specialised processing technologies.
A relatively small group of countries dominates global nickel production. Indonesia is currently the largest producer, followed by the Philippines, New Caledonia, Russia, Canada and Australia. Each hosts major sulphide or laterite deposits and has built the infrastructure needed to mine and process them. Other regions, such as Brazil, Papua New Guinea and Tanzania, are emerging as new players as exploration expands and processing technologies improve.
Fig. 7 (above) highlights how mining and processing are distributed globally. The major mining countries, Indonesia, the Philippines, New Caledonia, Canada, Russia and Australia, are located in regions with favourable ultramafic geology.
Ultramafic rocks are igneous rocks with very low silica and high iron and magnesium. They are composed mostly of olivine and pyroxene, form much of Earth’s mantle, and appear at the surface in places like komatiite flows (extremely hot, fast-moving, low-viscosity lava flows, rich in magnesium and olivine) or as serpentinite after alteration. These rocks naturally contain nickel within their minerals and are the source of many major nickel deposits, both sulphide ores such as pentlandite and laterite deposits formed by tropical weathering. Therefore, theses ultramafic terrains are some of the most important geological settings for finding economically significant nickel resources worldwide.
Emerging producers of nickel, such as Brazil, Papua New Guinea and Tanzania, represent areas where significant resources exist but have only recently begun to be developed. In contrast, the main processing hubs, China, Japan and the European Union, are located far from most primary deposits. This distance separation between where nickel is mined and where it is refined reflects the global nature of the supply chain and the interdependence between producing and processing regions, and the highly possible disruption of refined nickel.
Nickel recycling and emerging technologies
Nickel recycling is growing as industries recognise the value of recovering nickel from stainless steel scrap, catalysts and spent batteries. Europe, Japan and China currently lead these efforts, while the United States and India are expanding their recycling capacity. Table 3 (above) presents common products that contain nickel and its uses.
Recycling patterns reflect the diversity of nickel‑bearing products. Stainless steel scrap remains the most dependable secondary source of nickel because collection and processing systems are well established. Battery recycling, especially for electric vehicles, power tools and consumer electronics is still developing. These products contain valuable nickel content, but their complex chemistries and ill-defined, end‑of‑life pathways make recovery more expensive and challenging.
Recycling alone cannot meet rising nickel demand, but it remains an essential part of the supply picture. It reduces waste, lowers environmental impacts and strengthens supply security. As recycling technologies improve, the balance between mined and recycled nickel will continue to shift. Still, for recycling to play a much larger role, industry will need sustained investment, solutions to engineering challenges and careful management of environmental concerns. These factors will shape how recycling contributes to the future of nickel supply.
Nickel in a changing world
Nickel has long been associated with stainless steel and specialist alloys, but its role has expanded dramatically in recent decades. As economies shift towards electrification, renewable energy and advanced manufacturing, nickel has become a strategic material with implications that extend far beyond the site of the mine. Its mineralogical diversity, industrial versatility and uneven global distribution place it at the centre of concern regarding energy security, environmental responsibility and technological change.
The rapid growth of electric vehicles has reshaped global demand. Battery chemistries containing nickel, particularly nickel‑rich cathodes offer high energy density and longer driving ranges, making them attractive to manufacturers. This has intensified interest in both sulphide and laterite deposits, while also accelerating research into alternative chemistries that use less nickel or rely more heavily on recycling. As a result, the economy of nickel is beginning to rely more heavily on technological advances, while still relying on traditional metallurgical processes.
Environmental and social considerations are also becoming more important. Laterite processing, especially through high‑pressure acid leaching, raises questions about energy use, waste management and carbon emissions. Magmatic sulphide mining, while often less energy‑intensive, can involve deep or complex underground operations leaving behind their own environmental impacts. Communities, governments and industry must remain vigilant, and pay closer attention to how nickel is sourced, processed and transported.
At the same time, the aesthetic appeal of nickel‑bearing minerals continues to draw interest from collectors and museums. Minerals such as millerite, gaspeite and garnierite provide a tangible link between deep‑Earth processes and the objects displayed in mineral cabinets around the world. Their colours, textures and crystal forms offer a reminder that critical minerals are not only industrial commodities but also part of the natural beauty of earth’s resources that need to be preserved.
Nickel finds itself, along with many of the other elements discussed in this series on critical minerals, at the intersection of science, industry and society; therefore, making it a mineral of the moment. Nickel’s future will be shaped not only by technology and environmental concerns, but also by how people use and replace products. Many items are still easier to discard than repair, and new versions often offer only modest improvements. These habits influence how much material enters the recycling stream and, in turn, affect the balance between mined and recycled nickel. As these pressures evolve, they will play a major role in determining how the world meets its growing nickel needs.
Summary
Nickel occupies a distinctive place among the critical minerals shaping the modern world. Its geological origins lie in deep magmatic systems and intensely weathered tropical landscapes, while its influence extends well into technologies that define everyday life. From stainless steel and high‑temperature alloys to electric vehicle batteries and renewable energy systems, nickel connects the earth’s limited resources with the immediate demands of global industry.
The mineralogical diversity of nickel reflects the environments in which it forms. Minerals such as millerite, gaspeite and garnierite are admired for their colour and crystal form, while pentlandite and other sulphides underpin much of the world’s nickel supply. Understanding these minerals, how they form, where they occur and how they behave during processing provides essential context for evaluating nickel’s economic and strategic significance.
Mining and processing remain technically demanding, while recycling is becoming increasingly important, offering a means of reducing waste, improving supply security and lowering environmental impacts. But recycling alone cannot meet rising demand, and the balance between mined and recycled nickel will continue to evolve, as technologies and product demands change.
Nickel’s future will depend on how effectively society can balance technological ambition with environmental responsibility and ethical sourcing. By examining nickel from its geological context to its industrial applications, we all can gain a better understanding of the challenges and opportunities facing nickel and society.
About the author
Michael C Mackiewicz is Professor of Geology, Adjunct at Southern New Hampshire University, USA. He can be contacted at M.mackiewicz@snhu.edu.
References
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Additional sources: mineral databases
Le Comptoir Géologique. (n.d.). Garnierite encyclopedia, from https://www.le-comptoir-geologique.com/garnierite-encyclopedia.html
Mindat.org. (n.d.). Mineral database, from https://www.mindat.org/
R Ruff Project. (n.d.). Integrated database of Raman spectra, X-ray diffraction and chemistry data for minerals. from https://www.rruff.net/